IGCSE Geography – Development
1. What is Development?
Development refers to the improvement in the economic, social and political wellbeing of people in a country.
It includes improvements in:
- Income
- Education
- Healthcare
- Living standards
- Infrastructure
- Access to technology
Important Idea
Development is not just about money. A country may be wealthy but still have social problems such as poor healthcare or inequality.
2. Indicators of Development
Definition
Development indicators are statistics used to measure and compare the level of development of different countries.
They help geographers determine:
- How developed a country is
- Whether development is improving over time
- Differences between countries
3. Types of Development Indicators
1. Economic Indicators
GNP per Capita
Gross National Product per capita measures the average income per person in a country per year.
Formula
What it shows
- Economic wealth
- Standard of living
Example
| Country | GNP per capita |
|---|---|
| Germany | High |
| Kenya | Lower |
Limitations
- Does not show income inequality
- Does not measure quality of life
2. Social Indicators
Literacy Rate
Percentage of people who can read and write.
Higher literacy suggests:
- Better education systems
- More development
Example:
- Developed countries: ~95–100%
- Developing countries: lower rates
Life Expectancy
Average number of years a person is expected to live.
Influenced by:
- Healthcare
- Nutrition
- Clean water
- Sanitation
Example:
| Country | Life Expectancy |
|---|---|
| Japan | ~84 years |
| Many LICs | ~60 years |
4. Composite Indicators
These combine several development indicators into one measure.
Human Development Index (HDI)
One of the most important composite indicators.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) created HDI.
HDI Measures
- Life expectancy (health)
- Education (literacy & years of schooling)
- Income (GNI per capita)
HDI Scale
| HDI Value | Development Level |
|---|---|
| 0.8 – 1.0 | Very high development |
| 0.7 – 0.79 | High development |
| 0.55 – 0.69 | Medium development |
| Below 0.55 | Low development |
Example:
| Country | HDI |
|---|---|
| Norway | Very high |
| Kenya | Medium |
5. Inequalities in Development
Development is unevenly distributed.
This means there are inequalities.
1. Inequalities Between Countries
Some countries are much richer and more developed.
Example:
| Type | Characteristics |
|---|---|
| High Income Countries (HICs) | High income, strong services |
| Low Income Countries (LICs) | Low income, agriculture-based |
2. Inequalities Within Countries
Development differences also occur inside countries.
Examples:
- Urban vs rural areas
- Rich vs poor regions
- Coastal vs inland regions
Example (Kenya):
- Nairobi is more developed than remote rural areas.
Reasons include:
- Access to jobs
- Infrastructure
- Investment
- Education
6. Economic Sectors
Economic activities are divided into four sectors.
1. Primary Sector
Definition
Activities that extract natural resources from the Earth.
Examples:
- Farming
- Fishing
- Mining
- Forestry
Example countries:
- Ethiopia
- Nepal
Features:
- Low income
- Labour intensive
- Found mostly in LICs
2. Secondary Sector
Definition
Activities that manufacture raw materials into finished goods.
Examples:
- Car manufacturing
- Food processing
- Textile factories
- Steel production
Example:
- Car factories in Germany
Features:
- Industrial activity
- Factories
- Urban growth
3. Tertiary Sector
Definition
The service industry.
Examples:
- Healthcare
- Education
- Banking
- Tourism
- Transport
Example:
- Hotels and tourism in Spain
Features:
- Dominant in developed countries
4. Quaternary Sector
Definition
Knowledge-based and information industries.
Examples:
- Research
- IT
- Software development
- Scientific research
Example companies:
- Microsoft
Common in:
- Highly developed economies
7. Employment Structure and Development
Employment structure refers to the percentage of workers in each sector.
LICs
Most employment in the primary sector.
Example structure:
- Primary: 60–80%
- Secondary: 10–20%
- Tertiary: small
MICs (Middle Income Countries)
Industrialising economies.
Example structure:
- Primary decreasing
- Secondary increasing
- Tertiary growing
Example country:
- China
HICs
Most jobs in tertiary and quaternary sectors.
Example structure:
- Primary: very small
- Secondary: moderate
- Tertiary: dominant
Example country:
- United Kingdom
Important Trend
As development increases:
Primary ↓
Secondary ↑ then ↓
Tertiary ↑↑
This is called the sectoral shift.
8. Globalisation
Definition
Globalisation is the process by which the world becomes increasingly interconnected through trade, technology, culture and communication.
9. Causes of Globalisation
1. Improvements in Technology
Examples:
- Internet
- Smartphones
- Faster transport
- Container shipping
Technology allows companies to:
- Communicate globally
- Sell worldwide
- Manage factories abroad
2. Transnational Corporations (TNCs)
Definition
A Transnational Corporation (TNC) is a company that operates in multiple countries.
Examples:
- McDonald's
- Nike
- Apple
They have:
- Headquarters in one country
- Factories or offices in others
3. Economic Factors
Other reasons globalisation occurs:
- Free trade agreements
- Lower transport costs
- Cheap labour in developing countries
- Expansion of international markets
10. Impacts of Globalisation
Impacts occur at three scales.
1. Local Impacts
Positive:
- Job creation
- New infrastructure
- Skill development
Negative:
- Poor working conditions
- Environmental damage
- Local businesses may suffer
2. National Impacts
Positive:
- Economic growth
- Increased exports
- Technology transfer
Negative:
- Dependency on foreign companies
- Economic inequality
3. Global Impacts
Positive:
- Cultural exchange
- Global trade growth
- Spread of technology
Negative:
- Environmental problems
- Loss of cultural identity
- Economic dominance of powerful countries
11. Case Study: Transnational Corporation
Example: Nike
Background
Nike is a global sportswear company headquartered in the United States.
It operates in many countries worldwide.
Global Links
Nike:
- Designs products in the USA
- Manufactures in countries such as:
- Vietnam
- Indonesia
- China
- Sells products globally
Advantages for Host Countries
- Job creation
- Foreign investment
- Skill development
- Export earnings
Example:
Factories provide thousands of jobs in Vietnam.
Disadvantages
- Low wages
- Poor working conditions
- Environmental pollution
- Profits mainly go to headquarters
12. Comparing Countries Using Indicators
Geographers compare countries using:
- GNP per capita
- HDI
- Literacy
- Life expectancy
- Employment structure
Example comparison:
| Indicator | HIC | LIC |
|---|---|---|
| GNP per capita | High | Low |
| Literacy | High | Lower |
| Life expectancy | Long | Shorter |
| Employment | Services | Agriculture |
13. Exam Tips
Tip 1
Always define key terms clearly.
Example:
Development = improvement in economic and social wellbeing.
Tip 2
Use statistics when possible.
Example:
“Country A has a life expectancy of 80 years compared to 60 years in Country B.”
Tip 3
For 6-mark questions, include:
- Explanation
- Examples
- Impacts
- Balanced view
Tip 4
In case studies, remember:
- Name of TNC
- Countries involved
- Benefits
- Problems
14. Key Terms to Remember
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Development | Improvement in quality of life |
| Indicator | Statistic used to measure development |
| HDI | Composite index measuring development |
| Globalisation | Increasing interconnection between countries |
| TNC | Company operating in multiple countries |
| Primary sector | Extraction of natural resources |
| Secondary sector | Manufacturing goods |
| Tertiary sector | Services |
| Quaternary sector | Knowledge industries |